A Clinical Case Study On Mild Cognitive Impairment Essay

Why is it that some seventy year olds cannot recall memories from their twenties or find it hard to follow along with a conversation? As people age they tend to change, physically and mentally. Just like our bodies, our brains change as we age. Our thinking becomes slower and we cannot remember certain things. However, memory loss, confusion and other major changes in the way our brains work may be signs of cognitive changes. This essay showcases a clinical case study on Mild Cognitive Impairment. It describes the process of cognitive development according to theorist Jean Piaget. It overviews the three basic cognitive function of the brain. It explains several cognitive impairments related to the elderly. Last, it details cognitive assessment used to detection and measurement of cognitive impairments in the elderly. Case Study A 78-year-old woman presented to her primary care physician for a routine examination, the results of which indicated that her previously diagnosed chronic disease conditions-smoking-related emphysema and high blood pressure-were being effectively managed. After scheduling an upcoming appointment, the patient pulled aside the office s physician assistant. I didn t want to bring this up with the doctor because I don t know whether it s anything to be concerned about or not, she confided. But I m worried about my memory. I seem to be forgetting where I ve been putting things lately-my keys and important paperwork, like my bankShow MoreRelatedMr. Wilsons Symptoms With Bipolar Affective Disorder1703 Words   |  7 Pagescomorbidities of diabetes and hypertension. The third cluster related to cognitive impairment is correlated to his social isolation, memory problems, loneliness and a sense hopelessness. 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An unnatural deposit of proteins structure amyloid plaques and tau tangles all through the brain, and once the active neurons quit working, they lose contact with different neurons, and they eventually die. Studies have also shown to slow down the rate of the developing, e volvingRead MoreSymptoms And Symptoms Of A Concussion1312 Words   |  6 Pagesproduce concussions. Players of these types of sports are at a significantly higher risk for developing long-term brain damage and cognitive impairment later in life. A concussion is a subset of a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and results from shaking the brain within the skull. The American Association of Neurological Surgeons (the â€Å"AANS†) has defined a concussion as â€Å"a clinical syndrome characterized by an immediate and transient alteration in brain function, including an alteration of mental status andRead MoreDementia With Lewy Bodies ( Dlb ) Essay1551 Words   |  7 Pagesbodies (DLB), when cognitive symptoms appear within a year of movement problems, is a complex and challenging neurodegenerative disorder. (Pervin, Edwards Lippa, 2016). It is complex because the DLB pathology and its impact on certain brain regions are unclear. The pathology includes Lewy bodies, senile plaques a nd neurofibrillary tangles. It is challenging because its many core features make it difficult for individuals to perform activities of daily living. The core clinical features compriseRead MoreWilliams Syndrome As A Neurodevelopmental Disorder Essay892 Words   |  4 Pagesyears old (Morris, Demsey, Leonard, Dilts Blackburn, 1988). 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Postmodernism And The Four Postmodernist Artists - 1740 Words

What exactly is Postmodernism and how is it different from Modernism? Well, Postmodernism is often described as a rebellion against what was seen as the assumptions and constraints of Modernist design thinking and practice. By researching the history of Postmodernism and Modernism, and the four Postmodernist artists, Banksy, Javier Mariscal, David Carson, and Ettore Sottsass, we can see how they express the characteristics and the concerns of Postmodernism. Let us begin with the history of Modernism and Postmodernism. Modernism is an array of cultural movements that includes art, architecture and design in the late 19th century. It started with artists who rebelled against the traditional teachings and wanted something radical, embracing the new social, political and economic aspects of the modern society. Artists such as Picasso, Monet and Pollock were painting in styles that has never been done before. Modernists believed that they could change the society and their way of life. I t was bound to happen with culture and trend change in Western society after the World War I. However, it became very rigid and inflexible, becoming more and more irrelevant to the rapidly changing world. Postmodernism, as the name suggests, came after Modernism. Modernists spent much of the 20th century trying to forge a better world inspired by science and universal truths. â€Å"Less is more†, quoted by a famous German-American architect named Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, it was what everyShow MoreRelated Enlightenment, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, and Postmodernism598 Words   |  3 PagesEnlightenment, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, and Postmodernism Literature: the enlightenment, romanticism, realism, modernism, and postmodernism†¦. Where does one begin? To some, those words can be as scary as the word computer is to others. This essay is designed to help you become a great literary interpreter. 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Relationship Between Gender - Security and Justice

Question: Analyse the relationship between gender, security and justice in conflict-affected environments? Answer: Introduction The conflicts create a feeling of insecurity among different groups of gender and the dynamics of every conflict is shaped up by these different conflict effects. The social interactions of everyday life are also disrupted by conflict and the role and relationship of men and women also change in the society as a result of that. The way of thinking in relation to conflict, security and opportunities for peace has been influenced by the interaction between gender and conflict. During the conflict the women disproportionately affected by the sexual and gender-based violence and the most ignorant fact is that in the warfare rape is the most powerful weapon regularly used. It is better to realize that women can fit into the roles of perpetrators and peacebuilders. The issues and challenges for women in a conflict affected environment are mostly unique and this is mentioned by UN Security Council itself. The important UN resolutions recognized the followings- Potentiality of women as peacebuilder Political involvement of women Conflict impact acknowledgement of women Thus, international policy is set for conflict affected gender groups, especially the women in peace and security matter as per the UN resolutions and their subsequent resolutions. Exposure of masculinity can create the insecure feelings during conflict. The gender perspective is important as it can drive conflict and at the same time it is able to provide pathways to peace. So, the understanding is important to design the programs effectively. Literature Review Global Summit to End Sexual Violence in Conflict is the largest gathering to date on the issue and Many NGOs and organizations took part in the Global Summit. The main objective of these organizations is to work in a fragile and conflict-affected environments where sexual violence is prevalent and often used as a weapon of war. In order to end sexual violence during conflict, with many other countries UK launched an Action Plan at the summit and William Hague, Justine Greening and Philip Hammond all signedthe same and spoke about the requirements of this action plan (Steven, 2012). The following key points have come out as a result of the summit- Acknowledging women as the center point for tackling conflict, building peace and stability Benefits of multilateral organizations like the UN, the EU and NATO should be used by UK for privileged positions in order to attain the objectives The importance of working with men and boys should be emphasized The UK is trying to remain visible, transparent and accountable while monitoring, measuring and evaluating the impact These initiatives will ultimately link with the broader prospectives of the rights of women, access to justice and violence prevention In post-conflict environments the level of violence against women is alarming and lack of documentation and statistical analysis has heightened the issue. The women are unaware or unable to assert their rights and as such the incidents often go unreported. This is the main reason behind the difficulties to accurately monitor the GBV and SGBV. Implementation of dedicated reporting and monitoring tools are essential as these are the most difficult forms of violence to assess. The role of media regarding GBV reporting is very important as it has a tendency to leverage stories of rape or abuse to discredit its opponents. The privacy of survivors is of little consequence and as a result, women are often victimized multiple times. The women as peacebuilder is acknowledged by the UN Security Council. The women have to pave the way for the recovery process and conflict prevention and their crucial role in this respect is recognized by many international institutions. As a result the resolution made the commitment to engage the women in conflict prevention and peace-building and most of the members of the UN are dedicated to fulfil this purpose. The serious threat of gender based sexual violence is recognized by the UN during and post conflict period and initiated the Stop Rape Now campaign. At the same time national plans of action on SGBV are promoted at the national level. The participation of women as a peacebuilder locally, nationally or internationally is an enormously challenging role in spite of the widespread recognition of their contributions. The women have to face social resistance when attempting to take on new public roles and this is the most important challenge for them. However, the women have th e ability to effectively influence the peace-building processes, but they have to compromise it due to their actual experience of gender based sexual violence threat and it is escalated during and post-conflict period especially. It is necessary to incorporate the rights and priorities of women besides involving them into decision making processes. For that purpose, peace agreements and post-conflict legal and political reforms have done requisite changes nationally in both policy and legislation. Although it has empowered women to better access to decision making roles, but it cannot give a guarantee of violence protection to them. These resolutions do not have any impact on the daily lives of women and so it can be said that these changes of policies should be transformed for the benefit of women. The community level peace-building processes need women and their empowerment in this respect is associated with many challenges. It is a true fact that the women face extreme difficulties to go against traditional practices for adoption of new roles (Norville, 2011). Numerous initiatives have been taken for transitional processes and peace building and for that purpose conflict resolution needs an increased number of women participation. In order to ensure full and active participation of women in peace and security subsequentresolutions has been adopted for substantial international progress in this area. These resolutions are implemented to emphasize on the national level formal participation of women. Some of the examples are- Increasing influence of the official peace process by women Constitutional or parliamentary involvement of women It is necessary to strengthen womens participation strategy at formal and national-level processes and for that purpose representation, inclusive democracy should be ensured at community and local-level. During conflict women have to fulfil a key instrumental role at the community level and the Research study by the Institute of Development Studiesand Womankind Worldwide clearly demonstrated that. In diverse contexts to mediate conflict and build peace locally the collective organization of women is desirable for the first time and thereby mutual protection and support should be provided by the creation of safe and empowering spaces. The above is discussed in respect of formal environment. However, after the conflict women have to play an informal collective role with support from national womens right organization. The vacuum created as a result of conflict should be filled up by womens collective action and the World Bank background paper confirms that. The informal collective experience paves the way for women political empowerment increasingly as they have gained leadership skills and experience from the group involvement and encouraged to implement the skills to broader political and public life (Sudhakar, 2011). Debate over relative happiness and fulfillment quotients of homemakers or breadwinners does not hold much relevance to women in conflict-affected areas as the demands of self-preservation and survival of the families oblige them to become homemakers and breadwinners. Learning from doing is the essence behind their acquiring valuable negotiation and management skills and in an inhospitable environment they have to carry on business operation. Thus, economic empowerment is possible in spite of immense psychological pressure on them. The war is a typically male-occupied matter and thus female-headed households typically increase during the conflict. Cambodia, Guatemala and Uganda are the specific examples of this and means of economic survival are explored by the women and thereby mobility and presence of women in public sphere increased. In order to facilitate women-run income generating activities unique organizations are created to include loan system for business investment purposes and at the same time they have provision of shared profits. However, it is a reality that during conflict women have the privilege to such activities on which they may previously have been denied access. Thus, social norms restricting womens movement erode during conflict. Out of many past treaties, only 16% have the references of women and the empowerment of women, including economic development are reflected in a mere 2% post-conflict budgets. The potential economic contributions of women in the post-conflict stability and security situation is grossly underestimated and it is the hard core reality. The objective of these settlements is undermined due to the exclusion of women from peace settlements. As a result sustainable socioeconomic development has been set up for conflict-affected societies. In order to rebuild economies from scratch necessary resources are required and the majority of post-conflict societies do not possess that. Therefore, the existing resource capitalization is important and a crucial path should be chalk-out towards job creation and socioeconomic building. The hypothesis that womens economic activities engender positive spillovers for the community is significantly supported by evidence and it includes increased spending on education and health. During conflict these women have been leading their families and communities and spillover generation necessarily involves engagement with women. Microcre dit and other financial mechanisms are the main tools for women-led enterprises where engagement is in financial and policy support form (Taylor, 2013). In post-conflict countries, it is necessary that the economic activities of women should be maintained and expanded as there may exist uncertain ownership rights over productive assets and for that purpose access to resources should be facilitated. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain a specific policy priority regarding the economic empowerment of women during the peaceful transition. Military forces frequently used rape as a tactic during times of violent conflict to harm, humiliation and shame. Systems of protection, security and justice also weaken by violence and war. Sexual violence is thus exacerbated and escalated by conflicts due to those reasons. In the same way the protection system is deteriorated by disasters as this will result in increasing abusive sexual and gender-based violence and human trafficking. It is a true fact that increased levels of sexual and gender- based violence may persist even after the end of a crisis. Women and girls are usually disproportionately affected and the lives of survivors, their families, and their living communities are not excluded from the devastating, long-term effects of these crimes. In any society sexual and gender-based violence is not tolerable as an inevitable fact. States are accountable for these violence and these are the outcomes of gender inequality and human rights violation (Stedman, 2011). The UNDP has supported several national efforts to eradicate sexual and gender-based violence. For that purpose, it is necessary to- Increase women political participation in several sectors like justice and security Develop policy framework regarding women protection and women right Improve quick access and delivery of justice and security service Provide medical, psychological, legal and economic assistance to survivors Raise awareness activities at community levels for prevention of violence Mobilize men to tackle and advocate against the prevalence of sexual violence The most essential question regarding gender and conflict is how different genders are affected by conflict due to several factors. Although the roles and needs may reflect biological differences to some extent, but for the most part the different roles and their priorities are determined by the society. Institutional norms and attitudes are controlling the characteristic of genders in many cultures. Thereby, the boys are encouraged to adopt the male ideals of toughness, strength, bravery, and aggression. Male status of the warrior and preparation of war as a core component of manhood is promoted by these ideals. Girls are expected to take the role of a caretaker of a family and active participation in local communities is preferred rather than on the national political stage. Thus, it is quite clear that gender in the form of man and woman is only fulfilling the learned roles and expectations (Kuehnast, 2012). The history reflects again and again the idea of projecting man as decision makers and soldiers. There have been less exposed about the role and experience of women in war. The recent focus of the international community is on the potential contribution of women towards peace building and difficulties that women face in war. The gender perspective has recently been exploring the impact of excluding women and other groups on peacebuilding. Since 1980 vulnerable groups are particularly having negative impact of the changing nature of war. However, the female: male ratio of people dying is going up considerably in the post-cold war era due to the direct effect of violent conflict. Both during and after war women and girls are more likely to be affected by sexual violence and domestic violence than battlefield-related physical violence. Sexual violence, forced abduction into sexual slavery and forced displacements are a major tactic of modern warfare. Due to lack of access to basic services, healthcare, food, or clean water during the war women may also suffer disproportionately. Men are generally going to the battlefield and women are left to family care without much access to income, titles to any land or property and obviously the basic services or information. Displacement of families and communities compounded these consequences. The women are subjected to gross domestic violence as their present position and role is not accepted by their counterpart. Sometimes they have to assemble the pieces of their lives as they have lost their male breadwinners. Significant research has found a number of reasons behind this sexual violence. This is a strategic form of warfare in order to create fear and trauma in the population, destroy families and communities and in some cases it is used as ethnic cleansing. Few weapons can erode the fabric of a community in a way the sexual violence can (Ibid, 2011). The man can also be considered while addressing the gender and conflict issue. They have to bear the human rights abuses also at a fairly significant rate. Although they are not vulnerable populations but they are the victims of combat due to recruitment into the armed forces or militias. The research study significantly reported that gender issues also persist during post-conflict period. Gender inequalities are heightened during warfare and persist even after the end of hostilities. Men are not accustomed to the role of women as economic provider. As the men are away, for fighting during conflict period women have to fulfil this economic provider role for the survival of the family with which they are not accustomed with during peacetime. But after returning from war men want women to return to their traditional role and as a result it creates tension and domestic violence. The institutions like functioning civilian police forces and social service agencies may be weak in a society recovering from war and as such they cannot help the women in a proper way. However, if the laws exist the police may not be able to enforce the laws as domestic abuse is considered as a private affair by the local authorities. After the end of warfare roles of women are diminished as they have to struggle with the issues of rebuilding livelihoods, job discrimination etc. The idea of empowerment of women in the most fragile environments is not new but lots of care is required regarding this issue. The sexual and gender based violence is often discussed in a conflict affected context and for that reason empowerment of women remains a neglected issue. However, following three action plans should be considered regarding the empowerment- Transforming work for womens rights Making social policy work for women Creating an enabling global environment for the realization of womens rights All these activities will create opportunity for influencing the gender norms positively and thus empowering women (Caldern, 2011). Conclusion Gender and justice are most concerned issue in any conflict affected environment. In post-conflict environments the level of violence against women is alarming and lack of documentation and statistical analysis has heightened the issue. The women are unaware or unable to assert their rights and as such the incidents often go unreported. This is the main reason behind the difficulties to accurately monitor the GBV and SGBV. Implementation of dedicated reporting and monitoring tools are essential as these are the most difficult forms of violence to assess. The women as peacebuilder is acknowledged by the UN Security Council. The women have to pave the way for the recovery process and conflict prevention and their crucial role in this respect is recognized by many international institutions. As a result the resolution made the commitment to engage the women in conflict prevention and peace-building and most of the members of the UN are dedicated to fulfil this purpose. The serious threat of gender based sexual violence is recognized by the UN during and post conflict period and initiated the Stop Rape Now campaign. At the same time national plans of action on SGBV are promoted at the national level. The participation of women as a peacebuilder locally, nationally or internationally is an enormously challenging role in spite of the widespread recognition of their contributions. The women have to face social resistance when attempting to take on new public roles and this is the most important challenge for them. It is necessary to incorporate the rights and priorities of women besides involving them into decision making processes. For that purpose, peace agreements and post-conflict legal and political reforms have done requisite changes nationally in both policy and legislation. Although it has empowered women to better access to decision making roles, but it cannot give the guarantee of violence protection to them. These resolutions do not have any impact on the daily lives of women and so it can be said that these changes of policies should be transformed for the benefit of women. The community level peace-building processes need women and their empowerment in this respect is associated with many challenges. It is a true fact that the women face extreme difficulties to go against traditional practices for adoption of new roles. It is necessary to strengthen womens participation strategy at formal and national-level processes and for that purpose representation, inclusive democracy should be ensured at community and local-level. During conflict women have to fulfil a key instrumental role at the community level and the Research study by the Institute of Development Studiesand Womankind Worldwide clearly demonstrated that. In diverse contexts to mediate conflict and build peace locally the collective organization of women is desirable for the first time and thereby mutual protection and support should be provided by the creation of safe and empowering spaces. Learning from doing is the essence behind their acquiring valuable negotiation and management skills and in an inhospitable environment they have to carry on business operation. Thus, economic empowerment is possible in spite of immense psychological pressure on them. The war is a typically male-occupied matter and thus female-headed households typically increase during the conflict. Cambodia, Guatemala and Uganda are the specific examples of this and means of economic survival are explored by the women and thereby mobility and presence of women in public sphere increased. In order to facilitate women-run income generating activities unique organizations are created to include loan system for business investment purposes and at the same time they have provision of shared profits. However, it is a reality that during conflict women have the privilege to such activities on which they may previously have been denied access. Thus, social norms restricting womens movement erode during conflict. Out of many past treaties, only 16% have the references of women and the empowerment of women, including economic development are reflected in a mere 2% post-conflict budgets. The potential economic contributions of women in the post-conflict stability and security situation is grossly underestimated and it is the hard core reality. The objective of these settlements is undermined due to the exclusion of women from peace settlements. As a result sustainable socioeconomic development has been set up for conflict-affected societies. In order to rebuild economies from scratch necessary resources are required and the majority of post-conflict societies do not possess that. Therefore, the existing resource capitalization is important and a crucial path should be chalk-out towards job creation and socioeconomic building. Military forces frequently used rape as a tactic during times of violent conflict to harm, humiliation and shame. Systems of protection, security and justice also weaken by violence and war. Sexual violence is thus exacerbated and escalated by conflicts due to those reasons. In the same way the protection system is deteriorated by disasters as this will result in increasing abusive sexual and gender-based violence and human trafficking. It is a true fact that increased levels of sexual and gender- based violence may persist even after the end of a crisis. The idea of empowerment of women in the most fragile environments is not new but lots of care is required regarding this issue. The sexual and gender based violence is often discussed in a conflict affected context and for that reason empowerment of women remains a neglected issue. However, economic empowerment of women will resolve many gender based issues and for that purpose necessary steps should be taken by the appropriate authorities (Justino, 2012). References: 1. BBC News. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4078677.stm Reference for Men, Rape and Honor box. Accessed from Time.com on 20th June, 2015. 2. Caldern , A. (2011) Forced Migration, Female Labour Force Participation, and Intra-Household Bargaining: Does Conflict Empower Women?3. Ibid. (2011). Translating Global Agreement into National and Local Commitments. Women and War: Power and Protection in the 21st Century. United States Institute of Peace Press: Washington, DC4. Kuehnast, Kathleen, Chantal de Jonge Oudraat, and Helga Hernes, Eds. (2011). Women and War: Power and Protection in the 21st Century. U.S. Institute of Peace: Washington, DC5. Kuehnast, Kathleen, Manal Omar, Steven E. Steiner, and Hodei Sultan (2012). Lessons from Womens Programs in Afghanistan and Iraq. United States Institute of Peace Special Report, no. 302 (March). https://www.usip.org/files/resources/SR_302.pdf6. Taylor, B. M (2013), Conflict financing: whats wrong with war economies?, Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource C entre Report.James Cockayne (2010) Crime, Corruption and Violent Economies, Adelphi series Special Issue: Ending Wars, Consolidating Peace: Economic Perspectives, Volume 50, Issue 412-413.7. Norville, Valerie (2011). The Role of Women in Global Security. United States Institute of Peace Special Report, no. 264 (January). https://www.usip.org/files/resources/SR264-The_role_of_Women_in_Global_Security.pdf8. OESCE. (2012). Enhancing the role of women mediators in the OSCE region. Available at https://www.osce.org/gender/905629. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe The Secretariat (2012). Enhancing the role of women Mediators in the OSCE region. (October). https://www.osce.org/gender/9056210. Justino, Patricia (2012) Women Working for Recovery: The Impact of Female Employment on Family and Community Welfare after Conflict, UN Women.11. PBS (2011). Women, War Peace: A Five-part Special Series on PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/12. Rauhala, Emily (2011). Rape as a Weapon of War: Men Suffer, Too. TimeWorld (3 August). https://world.time.com/2011/08/03/rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-men-suffer-too/13. Stedman, Brooke (2011). "Security After the Quake? Addressing Violence and Rape in Haiti." United States Institute of Peace PeaceBrief, no. 73 (7January). https://www.usip.org/files/resources/PB73-Security_After_the_Quake.pdf14. Steinberg, Donald (2011). Women and War: An Agenda for Action. Women and War: Power and Protection in the 21st Century. United States Institute of Peace Press: Washington, DC.15. 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Rhetoric Philosophy and Shapiros Criticism on the Dworkins Work

Introduction In the following essay, the first part will compare and contrast, the rhetoric of legal philosophy as described and exemplified by legality and normative jurisprudence. The answers will focus on the double meaning of rhetoric philosophy, audience common ground, topics, methods, and the intended effects.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Rhetoric Philosophy and Shapiro’s Criticism on the Dworkin’s Work specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The second part of the essay will examine the work of Scott Shapiro and Robin West in their critique of Dworkin’s best light analysis. This part will also examine the similarities of their arguments on how Shapiro would frame West’s arguments in terms of roles and trust management. Part One. It is imperative for one to understand the distinction between legality and normative jurisprudence. Legality in nonprofessional’s language is the st rict observance of laws in an inflexible way. It is following the rule of the law especially the natural law strictly without considering the circumstances that may need flexibility and different set of actions. The normative jurisprudence on the other hand is of the argument that laws are for the purposes of containing the society and they are prone to change depending with the time and the circumstances. This is because the laws in place are for the common good of human beings in positioning members of the society for success in their daily operations. The following points exemplify the differences and the similarities of various views as explained by different scholars. Double Meaning of Rhetoric Philosophy. The rhetoric is an art of persuasion and its use in philosophical arguments is imperative in shaping discourse in the society. The rhetoric is imperative in the legal and normative jurisprudence as it gives the society information on the best manner of jurisprudence to apply in their governance and in legal judgments. The rhetoric as part of the jurisprudence provides the arguments and the various opinions, which are important in representing the various parts of the society. The legal rhetoric expressed by different legal scholars from the Thomistic school of law have always supported the legalistic jurisprudence arguing that laws are set for the common good and that the laws set by the society need alignment with the divine laws.Advertising Looking for essay on rhetoric? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Legality jurisprudence is of the argument that stands for the need and the necessity of incorporating the divine laws as part of the society. The rhetorical persuasions permeated through the religious discourse have provided the opportunity for legalistic proponents to exert their influence in the society. This has seen the incorporation of the Judeo Christian aspects in the modern legal law. The legalistic rhetoric persuades the importance of having those laws as part of the society. On the other hand, the normative jurisprudence rhetoric leans towards attainment of hegemony between those who believe in legalism and those who support independence. The normative rhetoric persuades the society to view that laws are flexible and they only help people not to go to the extremes. They argue that laws inconsistent with the common good are also inconsistent with natural justice whether divine or human. The liberal rhetoric advocated by the liberal lawyers is that the unjust law is not a law at all. Legislation of laws intends to avail justice to all human beings and failure of law to meet the criterion makes it inconsistent. The rhetoric of legal philosophy examines the audience and their differences in paying attention to the discourse. The audiences are the individuals who pay attention to the discourse and their position in the society. The legalistic jurisprudence audience supp orts the moral and the legal absolutism expressed by the law. This audience advocates for the absolutism of the law, as formulation of law is an advance action to contain acts of injustice. It holds the view that the law is fair to those who are just and unjust. This jurisprudence audience commonly exists in religious circles where absolutism in matters such as marriage, and sexuality permeates. It holds the opinion that just laws apply to all people whether the people ascribe to those beliefs or not. The normative jurisprudence audience on the other hand is more liberal and radical in their view of the law. The law should consider what is just for the majority and what is just for the minority. The hegemony arrived at by the two is the law.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Rhetoric Philosophy and Shapiro’s Criticism on the Dworkin’s Work specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The audience of this is usua lly the minority groups especially the political minorities and the religious minorities who may be at a disadvantage for their different opinions and lack of numerical strength to support their rhetoric. Common ground refers to those aspects where both the legal and the normative jurisprudence have similar views or opinions. Both the conservative and the liberals have common agreement. The first aspect where both the legalistic jurisprudence and the normative jurisprudence concur is that of the need for law in the society. Both schools of thoughts acknowledge that the society cannot exist cohesively without structure and mechanisms of justice. They agree there is need to have laws and structures of legislating the laws and organs of implementing the laws in the society. The two schools of thoughts also concur on the fact that laws address issues of justice and fairness in the society. Justice in this case is fairness to all. They concur that it is imperative to ensure that the laws apply to all people. No one should be above the law set in the society, as this is the basis of justice. They agree that mechanisms set to incorporate or to formulate laws governing the society should incorporate all and sundry such that anyone who contravenes the laws made by the society does not offend an individual but the society. There are topics, which elicit conflict in the application of both the legal and the normative jurisprudence. One of the major topics arousing interest and conflict from both the legal and the normative jurisprudence is in the issue of abortion. The interpretation concerning the sanctity of human life is a topic of interest to the advocates of the legalistic jurisprudence. The legalistic school advocates that human life is sacred and terminating it at will is a crime and unjust even for the unborn baby. The legalistic school is rigid and at times, there are rhetoric and arguments on which life need preservation in cases where both the life of the moth er and the unborn baby are in danger. The liberal school on the other hand argues that there are circumstances where the law of sanctity of life depends on the circumstances, as the law should always consider circumstances under which the action happened. This rhetoric on this topic is yet to tone down and there are various positions advocated by the proponents of each side of the divide.Advertising Looking for essay on rhetoric? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The other topic, which elicits conflict between the two aspects of jurisprudence, is that of the gay’s rights in the society. Civil laws in many countries prohibit same sex marriages. The legalistic jurisprudence school is against such marriages due to its strict adherence to natural laws that a man should marry a woman and likewise the female ought to marry the opposite sex. The normative jurisprudence takes a different stand on this issue where it considers the sex orientation of the individual thus the normative jurisprudence considers same sex legal depending with the sexual orientation of the individuals. The other topic of interest in this school of thoughts concerns capital punishment imposed on offenders of capital crime. The legalistic jurisprudence advocates for capital punishment as fair way of punishing capital offenders. The normative jurisprudence on the other hand sees capital punishment as contravention of the justice by doing injustice to the offender and by denying the offenders the right to live. Various methods of rhetoric have been applied to persuade members of the public and the judicial system to ascribe to any side of the divide. The rhetoric used in the legislative processes is a way of articulating law philosophical positions. Lobbying for support of the two philosophical positions in law is a method in which rhetoric is used. Part 2. This part explains Shapiro’s and West’s criticism on the work of Dworkin. To examine Shapiro’s and West’s criticism on the work of Dworkin it is imperative to understand the best light analysis. According to the Dworkin’s argument, law is real and integrity characterizes it. For law to have the integrity it deserves it must have two aspects. The first one is the legislative integrity and the second one is the adjudicative integrity. According to Dworkin, a law must have the necessary integrity in its legislation process. The legislation process must have integri ty when making the laws. The process must be representative of the society as a whole for the laws made to have the support and include all the aspects of the society. The other part of legislation integrity is that it must make laws that are consistent with natural justice. When lawmakers adhere to the ideals of the integrity of the law in their political process of formulating it then the adjudicative process starts. The adjudicative process is imperative as it deals with implementation as well as application of the laws set (Dworkin 56). According to Dworkin, the adjudicative process must start with pre-interpretation of the law where the judge gathers all legal materials and precedents related to the case. The second process is that of interpreting the law. When making the interpretation the judge must ensure that, the interpretation is based on the facts as well as the data gathered in pre interpretative stage. After examining the data, the judge must have justification of the decision shown in the best light (Dworkin 32). Shapiro and West however criticize this view for a number of reasons. The first is the irrelevance of the consistency of the principles used by the judges when adjudicating cases. Shapiro argues that following the precedents, which were decided long ago under different times makes the circumstances different, and advocates that the adjudication should be as per the present circumstances. Shapiro argues that the law is not integral on its own but it acts as a guiding principle that may change as per the discretion of the judge. This expression by Shapiro does not require judges to base their justifications on the entire law but on the best frit of their convictions (Shapiro and West 43). The other criticism is on the Dworkin’s stand especially the issue of inclusion of the moral principles as part of the analysis. However, at this point Shapiro and West take different positions. Shapiro advocates that natural justice need basis on the moral principles. This principle concurs with the Dworkin’s argument on the need to have moral laws of natural justice as part of entire laws. Shapiro is an advocate of ethics where ethics are the means through which the society adopts moral principles. The moral principles outline what is ethical and what is unethical. However, the argument of West is that laws are social thesis of the society, which is from the norms advocated for in the society rather than from the specific moral laws. This leaves it open for the members to decide which moral laws to choose as part of their laws compared with the inclusion of the moral law in the entirety of the law. The other aspect of their criticism is on the roles and trust management where West and Shapiro criticize Dworkin for the leaning on legalistic side on the roles and trust management in legal terms (Shapiro and West 17). Dworkin argues that trust comes out of strict adherence to the ordinances set by the members of the so ciety and that it is lost through failure to adhere to the rules (Dworkin 78). This is especially when there are individuals in the society who go unpunished after breaking the rules. West argues that trust comes from the agreement to change the laws when instances arise for flexibility to allow discourse to change. Shapiro refers to ethics by the members of the society as the best means of having trust (Dworkin 87). Conclusion The awareness concerning jurisprudence and various schools of thoughts, which shape the discourse on the Rhetoric of law philosophy, are imperative for both the layperson as well as legal practitioners. The awareness of the two schools of thought assists law practitioners to decide the opinions and the thoughts which to advocate for in the rhetoric. Shapiro’s criticism on the work of Dworkin provides an opportunity to analyze the discourse on positivity and that of law as integrity. Law as integrity has usually gained support of all quarters although c urrently positivity has gained popularity due to its leniency on some issues of morality, as it does not bend towards conservatism but towards liberalism. This discourse is imperative in informing legal practitioners on the various points of view existing in this field and enables them to make an informed decision on the side that they will incline to in their legal practice. It also informs the legislators of the importance of having a legislative process that is representative and full of integrity. Works Cited Dworkin, Ronald. Law’s Empire. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986. Print. Shapiro, Scott and West, Robin. The Difference that Rules Make in Analyzing Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print. This essay on Rhetoric Philosophy and Shapiro’s Criticism on the Dworkin’s Work was written and submitted by user Jenny Andrews to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.